The Invisible majority - the status quo of women of color

In today's post, we once again use the concept of "intersectionality" that has been previously mentioned to help people understand its connection to the challenges faced by women of color.

Intersectionality is a theory that examines how social and cultural categories interact on multiple levels and contribute to social injustices. According to intersectionality theory, classic patterns of oppression in society, such as those based on race/ethnicity, gender, religion, nationality, sexual orientation, class, or disability, are not independent of one another. Instead, these forms of oppression are interconnected, creating a system that reflects multiple forms of discrimination at their "intersection."

Intersectionality posits that women experience oppression in varying forms and intensities.

The concept of intersectionality was introduced by Kimberlé Crenshaw in her 1989 paper for the University of Chicago Legal Forum. The central argument of this Black feminist article is that the experiences of a Black woman cannot be defined separately as being Black and being a woman; rather, they must be understood as a continuous intersection of the two.

Her research has also been pivotal to the development of intersectional feminism, which explores the overlapping oppression and discrimination women face due to race, sexual orientation, and economic background.

Applying intersectionality theory to women of color is essential because intersectionality has exponential effects. Understanding this theory helps address the challenges faced by women of color, such as domestic violence, wage inequality, and identity crises.

For example, in cases of workplace harassment involving women of color, while many might believe that sexual harassment is related to gender discrimination and power, it is also deeply intertwined with race and culture:

For women of color, sexual harassment is rarely just about sex or gender discrimination; it is also about race.

When it comes to feminism, American feminism tends to focus more on middle-class white women rather than marginalized groups such as African Americans, Asian Americans, Latinas, and Native Americans.

In studies on matriarchy and male supremacy included in "The Course Reader," articles point out that American feminism has been criticized for failing to adequately incorporate these issues into feminist thought, political goals, and institutional plans. Critics question American feminism's tendency to "universalize" the experiences of middle-class white women, ignoring or diminishing racial, ethnic, cultural, and social differences among women while adopting a broad notion of shared oppression among all women.

To begin exploring issues faced by women of color, I want to discuss the lived experiences of African American women. Throughout American history, African American women have borne the dual burdens of racial discrimination, segregation, and gender marginalization.

Rape is one of the most significant issues faced by African American women. It is particularly heartbreaking that, historically, Black women were considered "unrapeable":

They were often blamed as victims and sometimes not believed by juries, police, and courts.

A culture of silence and myths of sexual promiscuity highlight their complex plight. The dehumanization of Black women can be seen reinforced in popular culture, such as hip-hop music, with lyrics and videos by artists like 2 Chainz. For example, in one song, he says, "All I want for my birthday is a big booty," accompanied by depictions of Black women’s exaggerated and exposed bodies.

Black women often avoid "using" sexual harassment because they perceive the American feminist movement as primarily led and defined by white women. In reality, sexual harassment is pervasive and can be particularly devastating for Black women. Additionally, Jeanne Amber's article on sex trafficking and abuse points out that "300,000 American children are at risk of being forced into prostitution. Oakland, in particular, has become a hotspot for this issue."

The intersectionality of gender and class makes girls of color particularly vulnerable and targeted.

In addition, in the article "The Pain of Gendered Silence," we see how intersectionality places women of color in a difficult position when choosing how to defend themselves. When I read this account, I was shocked: "I am willing to defend myself as a Black person but not as a Black woman." The cultural norms of the Black community often recognize only race and racism. For example, when it comes to victims of police violence, people know the name George Floyd but are less familiar with Black women’s names, such as Breonna Taylor and Atatiana Jefferson. For African American women, racism and sexism are not mutually exclusive. They cannot choose which one affects them while ignoring the other. The Black community must develop strategies to identify and combat this bias. "Gendered silence is paralyzing and corrosive," the article concludes, which I think is an excellent assessment of the dangers of this phenomenon.

In the workplace, intersectionality can be particularly profound. The article "Doing Double Duty" highlights the additional challenges African American women face, such as low wages, difficulties in recruitment, being overlooked in corporate environments, and rarely receiving recognition despite significant efforts. African American women may find themselves wondering, "Is it my fault or is it bias?"

In the workplace, Black women are often viewed as sexual objects, making them targets of unwanted sexual advances. They are influenced by stereotypes that paint them as more promiscuous than other women (such as white women), making workplace harassment more difficult for them. Furthermore, they must decide whether to report harassment from a white perpetrator and risk reinforcing false stereotypes about Black women’s sexuality or report harassment from a Black colleague, which could perpetuate the idea of Black men as sexual aggressors. Because "Black women have long been labeled lazy, welfare-dependent, and incompetent," such misconceptions persist.

Regarding the concept of "beauty," often based on white norms like body type and skin tone, Black women face dilemmas that lower their self-esteem.

Asian American women are another group affected by intersectionality. In the Asian American community, domestic abuse often goes unnoticed by others. Leung and Cheung’s research on partner abuse in the Asian American community addresses this under-studied issue.

Domestic violence is often described as abusive spousal behavior, but it is rarely reported. Understanding intersectionality can lead to more effort in developing and expanding culturally relevant services (both community and individual awareness) for Asians. After all, if domestic violence in the Asian community is not openly addressed, assistance will be ineffective.

Furthermore, Jennifer Weil and Hwayun Lee from Johns Hopkins University’s School of Nursing found a lack of research on domestic violence within Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders (AAPI). Many believe that because Asian Americans are seen as a model minority, domestic abuse doesn’t exist in this community. "Typical Asian attitudes" include a focus on community-oriented values and interdependence over individual desires. Traditional family and gender roles reinforce male privilege, worsening conditions for Asian American women. Addressing this issue may require reconciling Western concepts of liberty and individuality with Asian values of interdependence and community harmony.

When discussing sexual assault and trafficking, Oakland’s sex trade specifically targets Asian women. Recruiters often exploit Southeast Asian women from refugee groups, knowing they experience racial identity struggles.

Identity crises are frequent among Asian American women, as they find that traditional family values from their Asian heritage often conflict with perceived Western values in the U.S. As they struggle with identity crises, they may become vulnerable to recruiters, abusers, or family members who exploit their difficult circumstances. Such crises are a leading factor contributing to the prevalence of mental health issues among Asian American women, including depression, anxiety, and bipolar disorder.

Latina women, also as immigrants, face exploitative and challenging conditions, including various forms of violence. It’s worth noting that for Latina women, violence isn’t only physical; it can also take the form of economic violence or the loss of matrilineal surnames.

Court cases like Madrigal v. Quiligan (1978) reflect the harsh realities faced by Latina women. This case involved unsuspecting Mexican immigrant women who were sterilized without their informed consent or under coercion. The justification for sterilization was the belief that immigrant families would be a financial burden on the government.

Due to their race, ethnicity, and gender, Latinas face many challenges. This multifaceted discrimination affects how they experience and address domestic abuse. Institutional racism and patriarchal institutions intertwine in the experiences of Latinas. Recognizing the importance of intersectionality can help change and acknowledge these realities. For example, the Latino community might emphasize efforts to combat domestic abuse. Latinas have long been stereotyped as aggressive and fiery, while Latino men have been depicted as innocent virgins or cunning seductresses. In male-dominated cultures, Latinas are often expected to be humble and family-oriented. To fulfill the role of passionate lovers, Latinas are expected to be sensual and sexually responsive.

Latino communities expect Latinas to be traditional and live solely within the Latino family system. Latinas are expected to prioritize the family’s needs over their own.

Latina women often face challenges in accessing legal and social services. If a Latina woman seeks help from advocates who are already seen as part of institutional oppression, her actions may be perceived by the community as a betrayal. Latina women may feel vulnerable and powerless due to a lack of bilingual and bicultural services among care providers and shelters. They may also face cultural isolation.

Additionally, Latina women often experience exploitation as domestic workers, placing them in vulnerable positions at work. The article "Cleaning Dirty Business" investigates the issues surrounding paid domestic labor.

Paid domestic work is not considered legitimate employment, and women who perform this work—particularly Latina immigrant women in Los Angeles—are some of the most disenfranchised members of society. The lack of fair work hours and rules creates problems that can only be addressed by forming worker unions.

On the other hand, those who strive to organize and strengthen their work face spatial and legal restrictions. Organizations like the Free Hill Foundation and the Human Rights Alliance of Los Angeles Immigrants are leveraging this system and making claims to combat wage theft. This is an important part of our society’s organization today, and Latina immigrant women involved in this work are individuals with their own families, communities, and interests.

Chicana feminists have long worked under the framework of intersectionality to support their communities. Mirta Vidal described the "La Raza" solidarity as an example (1972). While "La Raza" solidarity is a fundamental tenet of the Chicano movement, when Chicano men talk about preserving La Raza families and "cultural heritage," they often refer to outdated notions of women staying barefoot, pregnant, and in the kitchen.

True solidarity cannot be achieved on the basis of women’s subjugation.

The only real solidarity between men and women is formed through their joint struggle against tyranny. Anna Nieto Gomez also discussed the intersection of race and class among Chicanas (1974), focusing on Chicana identity issues. Middle-class Anglo women and Chicanas share only one thing in common: they are women.

However, they are women of different racial, cultural, and socioeconomic backgrounds. All these factors influence these women’s diverse socioeconomic demands, which in turn shape their political views.

Due to intersectionality and marginalization, Native American women face particular difficulties both on and off reservations. The documentary Rape on the Reservation reveals a shocking fact: one in three Native American and Alaska Native women will be raped, but survivors rarely find justice on tribal lands.

This documentary exposes flaws in the federal and tribal criminal justice systems, resulting in sex offenders often receiving minimal punishment—or none at all—while survivors are left without justice.

When tribal and federal governments refuse to cooperate, investigations into sexual assaults slip through the cracks. Even in the rare cases where tribal courts achieve convictions, federal law prohibits most courts from sentencing offenders to more than one year in prison. Survivors who come forward to report assaults sometimes find themselves confined in close-knit communities with their attackers, and many say that the flawed justice system exacerbates their pain.

Subsequently, a series of Supreme Court decisions and federal regulations have led to a chaotic legal framework between federal, state, and tribal governments, making it difficult for survivors of sexual assault to achieve justice. Due to institutional racism and stereotypes, allegations made by Native American women are often dismissed. From the end of 2012, tribal courts were allowed to impose three-year punishments. Between 2013 and 2018, three sexual assault cases were convicted.

However, none of the cases resulted in harsher penalties. The maximum punishment remains one year.

Out of fear of retaliation, victims may choose not to reveal what happened to them. Reporting a sexual offender may spark conflicts with the offender’s entire tribe, which could lead to a series of repercussions.

In Mary’s book Lakota Woman, she discusses the difficulties of being a Native American woman, addressing the struggles faced by Sioux women and girls, such as sexual harassment and rape by white men, as well as the expectation to unquestioningly satisfy the sexual demands of Sioux men.

She also describes how, in the past, a girl’s first menstruation was celebrated, but this tradition has been lost. Now, menstruating women are excluded from ceremonies. She notes that while men pay lip service to the status of women in the tribe, she herself feels uncertain about her role as a medicine man’s wife and the roles women are allowed to play in Native American religions.

In summary, women of color face unique challenges under intersectionality. Understanding this theory helps address their problems, including workplace exploitation, domestic violence, and more. African American women, Asian American women, Latina women, and Native American women experience different realities and living conditions under varied social and cultural influences.

However, I believe we share a commonality: we are all marginalized and oppressed women. We all share sisterhood as women, and through collective efforts and the theory of intersectionality, we will fight for our equity.

Latina women often face challenges in accessing legal and social services. If a Latina woman seeks help from advocates who are already seen as part of institutional oppression, her actions may be perceived by the community as a betrayal. Latina women may feel vulnerable and powerless due to a lack of bilingual and bicultural services among care providers and shelters. They may also face cultural isolation.

Additionally, Latina women often experience exploitation as domestic workers, placing them in vulnerable positions at work. The article "Cleaning Dirty Business" investigates the issues surrounding paid domestic labor.

Paid domestic work is not considered legitimate employment, and women who perform this work—particularly Latina immigrant women in Los Angeles—are some of the most disenfranchised members of society. The lack of fair work hours and rules creates problems that can only be addressed by forming worker unions.

On the other hand, those who strive to organize and strengthen their work face spatial and legal restrictions. Organizations like the Free Hill Foundation and the Human Rights Alliance of Los Angeles Immigrants are leveraging this system and making claims to combat wage theft. This is an important part of our society’s organization today, and Latina immigrant women involved in this work are individuals with their own families, communities, and interests.

Chicana feminists have long worked under the framework of intersectionality to support their communities. Mirta Vidal described the "La Raza" solidarity as an example (1972). While "La Raza" solidarity is a fundamental tenet of the Chicano movement, when Chicano men talk about preserving La Raza families and "cultural heritage," they often refer to outdated notions of women staying barefoot, pregnant, and in the kitchen.

True solidarity cannot be achieved on the basis of women’s subjugation.

The only real solidarity between men and women is formed through their joint struggle against tyranny. Anna Nieto Gomez also discussed the intersection of race and class among Chicanas (1974), focusing on Chicana identity issues. Middle-class Anglo women and Chicanas share only one thing in common: they are women.

However, they are women of different racial, cultural, and socioeconomic backgrounds. All these factors influence these women’s diverse socioeconomic demands, which in turn shape their political views.

Due to intersectionality and marginalization, Native American women face particular difficulties both on and off reservations. The documentary Rape on the Reservation reveals a shocking fact: one in three Native American and Alaska Native women will be raped, but survivors rarely find justice on tribal lands.

This documentary exposes flaws in the federal and tribal criminal justice systems, resulting in sex offenders often receiving minimal punishment—or none at all—while survivors are left without justice.

When tribal and federal governments refuse to cooperate, investigations into sexual assaults slip through the cracks. Even in the rare cases where tribal courts achieve convictions, federal law prohibits most courts from sentencing offenders to more than one year in prison. Survivors who come forward to report assaults sometimes find themselves confined in close-knit communities with their attackers, and many say that the flawed justice system exacerbates their pain.

Subsequently, a series of Supreme Court decisions and federal regulations have led to a chaotic legal framework between federal, state, and tribal governments, making it difficult for survivors of sexual assault to achieve justice. Due to institutional racism and stereotypes, allegations made by Native American women are often dismissed. From the end of 2012, tribal courts were allowed to impose three-year punishments. Between 2013 and 2018, three sexual assault cases were convicted.

However, none of the cases resulted in harsher penalties. The maximum punishment remains one year.

Out of fear of retaliation, victims may choose not to reveal what happened to them. Reporting a sexual offender may spark conflicts with the offender’s entire tribe, which could lead to a series of repercussions.

In Mary’s book Lakota Woman, she discusses the difficulties of being a Native American woman, addressing the struggles faced by Sioux women and girls, such as sexual harassment and rape by white men, as well as the expectation to unquestioningly satisfy the sexual demands of Sioux men.

She also describes how, in the past, a girl’s first menstruation was celebrated, but this tradition has been lost. Now, menstruating women are excluded from ceremonies. She notes that while men pay lip service to the status of women in the tribe, she herself feels uncertain about her role as a medicine man’s wife and the roles women are allowed to play in Native American religions.

In summary, women of color face unique challenges under intersectionality. Understanding this theory helps address their problems, including workplace exploitation, domestic violence, and more. African American women, Asian American women, Latina women, and Native American women experience different realities and living conditions under varied social and cultural influences.

However, I believe we share a commonality: we are all marginalized and oppressed women. We all share sisterhood as women, and through collective efforts and the theory of intersectionality, we will fight for our equity.

Edited by: Estrella，一半豆浆，Cindy

Translated from Chinese, first posted on our Official Account:https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/UlLovczXI8vnYTkuomPX2A

Image Source: Google